Since its inception, the World Wide Web (WWW or Web) has become increasingly important in the world of distance education. Interestingly, the WWW was conceived by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 as a "project to bring a global information universe into existence using available technology" (see NCSA, 1999). In reality, the Web has taken on a much bigger role; it is used by academia, business, and the educational software (multimedia) industry, not only to disseminate information, but also to deliver varying forms of distance education. All three of these arenas produce some form of instruction for delivery on the Web, whether it be via online educational courses, self-guided skills-based training applications, or interactive multimedia programs.

As technologies advance and bandwidth increases, the need for Web-based instructional products will also increase, as will the need for talented instructional designers who can design varied Web-based instructional products. Consequently, designers should review how Web-based instructional projects are being created in academia, business, and the multimedia industry to synthesize considerations from each arena's production process.

The purpose of this paper is to guide instructional designers to resources that will help them design quality Web-based instruction. It is strictly an overview that lists pedagogical, instructional, technical, and organizational considerations constructed from academia, business, and the multimedia industry for two stages of the Web-based production process, analysis and design. Designers are encouraged to peruse this overview, independently research the proposed considerations, and apply them when designing Web-based instruction. Although it is understood every consideration proposed here may not be applicable in the production of every Web-based instructional product, it is believed designers familiar with these production considerations will be in a better position to create Web-based instruction regardless of where it is employed.

Analysis

In the analysis stage, designers should assess the need for Web-based instruction, weigh advantages and disadvantages of offering Web-based instruction, consider types of Web-based instruction to offer, and establish goals for the Web-based instructional product.

The first consideration is the need. Designers should be familiar with a needs assessment, it is undertaken before the design of most instructional products, Web-based or other, and addresses the needs of organizations as well as the needs of learners. A needs assessment is an event advanced from systematic instructional design theory (see Dick & Carey, 1996 and Briggs, et al., 1991 for more information), and is most often undertaken prior to the creation of training in the business field. However, varying types of needs assessments are conducted before instructional products are created in academia and in the educational (multimedia) software industry as well. Sometimes referred to as a client analysis, task/user analysis, information analysis, or even technical analysis (see Kilby, 1999), a Web-based instructional needs assessment is fundamentally an examination, not just of the instructional "problem" or skill gap, but also of the target audiences' demographics, including the audiences' technical expertise, ages, interests, educational levels, and available resources (see Kristof & Satran, 1995). Assessing the need for Web-based instruction should also include addressing the available budget, delivery options, risks, and timetables for the project (Hall, 1997). Instructional designers should identify instructional opportunities and closely examine the target audience before recommending a Web-based instructional product, whether it be a Web-based instructional course, performance-based skill program, or Web-based instructional "adventure."

After an instructional opportunity is identified and the target audience is examined, advantages and disadvantages of offering Web-based instruction should be weighed. Designers should debate if Web-based instruction is the best solution for their institution or organization, and for their target audience. For all three arenas, Web-based instruction can reduce travel and printing costs, has multi-platform delivery capabilities (Windows, Mac, UNIX), is easily updated and revisable, allows the transfer of knowledge across organizations, allows for learners to access content at their convenience, and allows for self-paced and self-directed learning. But, Web-based instruction can limit the formatting and design of content, requires server access and control usage, requires that learners adapt to new methods and technologies, can limit instructional strategies due to bandwidth considerations, can be slow and sometimes unreliable, and can require a substantial technical infrastructure (see Kilby, 1999; Dyer, 1999). Instructional designers should be aware that traditional forms of instruction (instructor-led, paper-based, or even video) may be more suitable based on the learning domain affected, be it a psychomotor, an intellectual, or an attitudinal skill; it has been purported that intellectual skills are best suited for Web delivery (Driscoll, 1998). Additionally, instructional designers are recommended to review decision aids when deciding if Web-based could be an appropriate solution for the institution's or organization's needs (Adams, 1996). If Web-based instruction is deemed an appropriate solution, designers should next determine the type of Web-based instruction to offer.

To do this, designers must examine two things, the purpose of the instruction and the technical capabilities of the project. The purpose of the Web-based instruction could be to impart knowledge-based, performance-based, or recreational learning opportunities. Technical options range from standard HTML pages, to streaming interactive multimedia, to interactive three-dimensional worlds. At this point in the analysis, production considerations can differ greatly from one arena to another. Generally speaking, there are three types or levels of Web-based instruction: Web-enhanced instruction, Web-managed instruction, and Web-delivered instruction (Barron, 1998).

In academic settings, where the purpose is usually to impart knowledge-based learning, Web-enhanced instruction often takes the form of on-line instructional courses with course related resources and links, and sometimes includes synchronous and asynchronous interactivity among learners (i.e. threaded discussions and internet relay chats). In business, where the purpose is mainly to impart performance-based learning or training, Web-managed instruction is often delivered as a stand-alone solution with skills assessments, learning paths, student tracking features, streaming video and audio. Many times these courses provide levels of interactivity, not among the users, but between the user and the content. In the multimedia industry, where the purposes are normally to impart recreational learning opportunities, Web-delivered instruction often takes the form of rich, multimedia stories, adventures, or 3D worlds that include animations, interactive games, avatars, and even music. In these cases, the primary focus of the Web-based instructional product is to first entertain then impart degrees of learning through users' "exploration." Technical development can be moderate or demanding depending on the type.

In academic settings, Web-based instructional courses are often developed using course management tools like WebCT, Classroom in a Box, and TopClass. These developmental tools have a fairly low learning curve, have the ability to facilitate fairly rich collaborative environments, and are relatively inexpensive. For Web-based business training solutions, instruction is often created using more expensive and technically demanding flow-line authoring tools like Macromedia Authorware, Allen Communication's Quest, and Asymetrix's Toolkit II. Web-based multimedia solutions are usually developed using rich media time-line programs like Macromedia Director or QTVR (Quicktime Virtual Reality), tools that integrate video, sound, and animation, or through programming languages like Visual Basic, Javascripting (DHTML), VRML, Java, and C+ +. These tools and languages are the most technically complex and are generally used only by experienced programmers. It is recommended designers research each of these tools and programming languages to become familiar with their capabilities and limitations. There is high probability designers will encounter one or more of these tools at some point in their career; in fact, in the future, the most robust Web-based instructional programs will likely combine technical elements from all of these Web-based instructional programs.

After examining the purposes and technical capabilities of the project to determine the type of Web-based instruction to deliver, designers should then establish goals for the project. Once again, instructional goals are advanced from systematic instructional design theory (see Dick & Carey, 1996 and Briggs, et al., 1991), and are almost always provided for academic, business, and multimedia Web-based instruction. Designers should note exactly what will be achieved with the Web-based instruction, asking questions such as, "how will the learner and designer know when goals have been reached? How will progress be measured? Will the company have the tools and knowledge required to create the product?" (Dyer, 1999, see Course Design section). The designer is recommended to review Dick & Carey (1991) and Briggs, et al. (1991) for a complete breakdown on how to establish goals for instructional courses or products. After goals are established, the analysis stage ends and the design stage begins.

In the design stage of a Web-based instructional course or product, pedagogy is reviewed, instructional strategies are determined, content is organized and flowcharted, scripts are written, interactive strategies are outlined, and a design document is produced.

Pedagogical considerations should drive the design of any Web-based instructional product. Often researched when producing academic distance learning courses, designers should research pedagogy when designing Web-based business (training) and educational software products too. Web-based instructional models are capable of ranging from pure information delivery to cognitive "immersive" instructional experiences (i.e. real-time chat rooms). These models can take on behaviorist, cognitive, or even constructivist frameworks. Instructional designers should be aware that Web-based instruction has the ability to foster high cognitive processing in users, and can take users from knowledge-based encounters through to synthesis, application, and evaluation levels of processing (using conferencing tools such as text and visual chat rooms, as well as Web-instruction that encourages student-created links and sites). It is recommended designers review Bannan-Ritland (1998) to understand how to choose pedagogical activities that foster active cognitive processing in learners.

There are other pedagogical issues in this stage for the designer to consider. In addition to taxonomy and instructional frameworks, designers should mix various activities into Web-based instruction to engage the learner, attending to varying learning styles and preferences; good Web-based instruction should include activities for auditory, visual, and tactile learners (see Kolb, 1984). For example, rich "clickable" image maps with auditory feedback can address all three learning style modalities. Designers must also understand how principles adapted from the behavioral sciences can affect perception and memory in instructional messages, and should research Adult Learning Theory (see Knowles, 1970) and Message Design Principles (Fleming and Levie, 1989) before designing any Web-based instruction. Once pedagogy is researched and decided, designers can move on to the next step in the design stage, formulating instructional strategies.

Also advanced from systematic instructional design (see Dick & Carey, 1996 & Briggs, et al., 1991) and considered most often during the design of academic and business Web-based instruction, instructional strategies are adapted from work done by Gagné (1977, 1988) and should include instructional activities to gain learners' attention, identify what is to be learned, remind learners of previous learning, present material and offer guidance, facilitate active involvement, assess performance, provide feedback and guidance, provide remediation, and provide motivation. For example, designers can gain learners' attention in a Web-based instructional environment by using eye-catching graphics, music, or even streaming video; it is possible to inform learners of objectives by providing advanced organizers and lists of objectives; designers can remind learners of previous knowledge by using visual outlines or salient links to previous material. The designer is recommended to review Ritchie and Hoffman (1997) to determine other Web-based instructional strategies that interface with Gagné's nine events of instruction.

After examining pedagogy and formulating instructional strategies, designers should begin organizing and flowcharting the Web-based instructional content. Often used by business or by the multimedia industry when designing large scale interactive multimedia training products or web-sites, organizational strategies should be undertaken (in some degree) when designing any Web-based instruction product regardless of where it will be employed (including academia). Kristof and Satran (1995) say organizing interactive content is more than just sorting information into categories, but also includes "prioritizing" content based on what the target audience needs to know or do. Web-based instructional content should be arranged into an architectural structure, taking the form of a linear or non-linear pathway. Many say instructional designers should reject linear design for Web-based instructional products because linear design does not meet the needs of learners. It is acceptable to suggest a path through a course, but designers should not require a predetermined pathway for the learner; good Web-based instruction allows the learner to begin in the middle and end at the beginning (Kilby, 1999). After determining the architectural structure, designers represent the structure in a flowchart showing direct and indirect access routes users take through the content (Kristof & Satran, 1995, p. 32). Once the flowchart is complete, the instructional designer can begin scripting the content.

Writing techniques for online delivery are similar in academia, business, and the multimedia industry. Writing for the Web should be structured by ideas, not rules, and the structure of ideas should be readily apparent to the user (learner). Also, instructional content should be scripted and supplied in manageable "chunks" that can be visually scanned. Designers are urged to avoid overly technical jargon and should write in the first person whenever appropriate, and should use humor and metaphor in short concise sentences (Gibbs & Fewell, 1997). Some other rules for Web writing include:

1) The topic, its main idea, and its conclusion should be immediately visible, locatable, or knowable [to the learner].

2)Structure of the content and the website should be readily recognizable.

3)Data, detail, and complexity are subjects for subsequent pages and should be logically placed.

4)Each subsequent page's content should be apparent by its link, and consistent with its predecessor.

5)Edit out the superfluous, no matter how clever, if it detracts from your message.

6)Leave white space between paragraphs to enhance readability.

(see Landsberger, 1999)

Designers are recommended to see Stansberry (1998) for a full review of writing techniques for interactive Web-delivered products.

The next step of the design stage is to outline an interactive strategy. Interactive strategies are an important component of the business and multimedia production process. During this step in the design, instructional designers adopt metaphors and create storyboards. An interactive strategy should include a plan to:

1) Motivate users by giving them clear guidance and options.

2) Create an interesting journey or clear path through the information.

3) Give users controls that allow them to go where they want and do what they want.

4) Make the experience as intuitive as possible.

(Kristof & Satran, 1995, p. 36)

Metaphors can be defined as functional or navigational; functional metaphors are used more in high-end multimedia products to create objects that perform the functions they represent (folders used to file documents, trash cans used to delete information, etc.), while navigational metaphors are used in almost any interactive product to guide users through the instructional content (i.e. image maps) (Kristof & Satran, 1995, p. 40-41). Storyboards are used to analyze the interface, show drafted buttons and controls, and to make decisions about the functionality of the Web-based instructional product. They can be rough sketches or color renderings, as long as they show how screens will change and how users will maneuver through the content. Once the interactive strategy is in place, all information from the analysis and design stages is gathered and represented in a design document.

Most often used in business and in multimedia development, design documents are detailed plans created by the instructional designer to provide development teams specifications needed to produce the final product. Design documents are sometimes called "blueprints" or "concept documents," and should include the needs assessment, goals for the product, technical information, pedagogy, flowcharts, navigational maps and outlines (flowcharts), interactive strategies (storyboards and interface design), and a script or "treatment." Designers are recommended to review Driscoll (1998) for a complete breakdown on Web-based instructional design documents.

After the design document is produced, instructional designers often turn the Web-based instructional project over to a development team for prototyping, programming, and debugging. Many times the next two stages of production, development and evaluation, are likewise supervised by instructional designers. Designers are recommended to research Dick & Carey (1996), Hall (1997), Lopuck (1998), Kristof & Satran (1995), and Williams & Tollett (1998) to review developmental and evaluation techniques for Web-based instructional products.

With the increased use of the World Wide Web to deliver distant education products, the need for instructional designers who can design quality Web-based instructional products is also increasing. Hence, it is recommended instructional designers familiarize themselves with production considerations from academia, business, and the multimedia software industry; currently, these three arenas are producing varying types of Web-based instructional products.

This paper outlined considerations for two stages of the Web-based production process, analysis and design. In the analysis stage, designers should assess needs, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of Web-based instruction, consider types of Web-based instruction to offer, and establish goals for the Web-based instructional project. In the design stage, designers should examine pedagogy, formulate instructional strategies, organize and flowchart content, script content, outline an interactive strategy, and produce a design document. It is believed designers who research the conveyed production considerations will be in a better position to create Web-based instruction in any arena, whether it be a Web-enhanced educational course, Web-managed performance-based skill program, or a Web-delivered recreational "adventure."

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