Traditional models of classroom instruction have placed great importance on mastering content through learning objectives. Although preferred in many educational contexts, theorists are nevertheless shifting away from this approach, purporting new instructional designs consistent with constructivist philosophy. The focus has shifted from external processing to internal processing, from teaching students to derive understanding from an external reality mapped onto them by outside forces (teachers, media producers, etc.), to helping students derive understanding from their own, meaningful, internal interpretations of reality. The process is believed to be as important, if not more so, than the end result.

Additionally, theorists feel it is no longer essential to prescribe learning outcomes. Rather, "instruction should focus on providing tools and environments for helping learners interpret multiple perspectives of the world in creating their own world view" (Jonassen, 1991, p. 12). Students exposed to constructivist experiences in the classroom will begin to trust their intellect to solve complex problems, seeing constructivist learning activities as means to develop higher order thinking skills, not just assignments with right or wrong answers. Evaluation in these experiences is considered 'goal-free.'

Most forms of video used in today's classrooms do not meet these expectations. Normally, instructional and educational video transfer knowledge and teach well-defined objectives. Although beneficial, these programs rarely challenge viewers to think for themselves. Producers cue and assist viewers with difficult information, gain viewers' attention to the critical features of the video's message, and organize information so it can be easily interpreted. In effect, these programs advance the goals of the producer, not the goals of the viewer.

Consequently, I advocate we, as educators, look for new forms of video advancing constructivist philosophy. Objective-based, instructional programs are not appropriate for constructivist learning environments; rather, we need to find more challenging, 'less-instructive' video that stimulates constructive thinking in the classroom.

This paper advances video as a way to challenge high-level learners in constructivist environments. It reviews how video is used in education, why it is used, and how it is designed to see show why objective-based programs are inappropriate for constructivist environments. Then, the paper recommends an unconventional, open-ended video model. The paper will show why this model is more challenging and less-instructive than traditional educational programs, and how it can be uses to stimulate constructive thinking in the classroom.

We place great value on video and television in education. These forms have been found to be successful and necessary for skill training and other educational purposes. Although appropriate for many contexts, their intentions and designs conflict with constructivist philosophy.

Intentions:

Educational and instructional programs are normally intended to advance the goals of an educational courses or subject. Video in education is by no means a new form of educational technology; its roots can be traced to those of educational and industrial training films of the early 1940's, as well as Instructional Television (ITV) and Educational Television (ETV) of the 1950's and 60's. Mostly, educational film in the early years was used to train military personnel in physical, emotional, and psychological skills. ITV emerged a bit later, and consisted of open- or closed circuit video programs designated to teach specific body of subject matter to groups of students (children and adults) in schools or homes. Educational television (ETV) closely paralleled the development of ITV, and referred to any type of educational video program presented for any serious purpose, whether to teach someone or develop cultural understanding (Saettler, pp. 366-367). Both are used today, in fact Cambre (1995) lists shows like Newscasts from the Past, Global Geography, and Community of Living Things as ITC programming, while Nova, Nature, and Sesame Street as good examples of ETV programming (pp. 296-297).

These programs serve definitive communicative purposes. Instructional video normally follows a predictable format, addresses specific objectives, and is watched by viewers as part of a formal educational course. The format centers around specific goals or skill areas to be taught. Educational video is both instructional and entertaining, appeals to wider audiences, and is broadcast daily on public television stations across the country. The format is more aesthetic and centers around specifying certain knowledge, or changing behaviors or attitudes (Aversa & Morrison, 1978). They rarely challenge viewers to think constructively.

Instructional and educational programs are designed to teach well-defined objectives, influence viewer perceptions, and control behaviors and attitudes. Producers use strategies to cue learning, to gain learners' attention to important features of the message, and to organize information so it can easily be understood. These strategies are driven by message design principles risen from the behavioral sciences, and advance the purposes of the producer, not the viewer.

Cueing is promoted by behavioral theorists as a way to assist learning. Gagné & Driscoll (1988) advance cueing as a form of learner guidance, maintaining sets of cues should be selected because they help learners store and recall what is to be learned (p. 90-91). Fleming and Levie (1978) feel learning can be facilitated when critical cues are dominant or conspicuous, and designers should attempt to magnify the essential features of any lesson or message to assist the memory of the receiver (p. 115).

Cueing influences perception and assists viewers in their interpretation of the instructional message. Most often, animation devices, such as pointers or color graphics, are used to guide learners to critical features of a message. Arwady and Gayeski (1989) say graphics and animation can be used by the producer to help viewers pick out salient portions of an otherwise confusing scene (pp. 77-79). Rieber (1990) says animation (such as moving arrows) can be used to direct viewer attention to the key points of any visual material (cited in Wetzel, et al., 1994, pp. 89-90). When producers cue in educational and instructional video, they offer assistance with portions of the message they feel the viewers may not understand.

Gaining learners' attention to important aspects of instructional messages is also promoted by behavioral theorists. Gagné & Driscoll (1988) suggest a rapid stimulus change at the beginning of a lesson as a way to gain learners' attention and direct learners' to important information (p. 87-88). Fleming and Levie (1978) say "change or novelty should direct attention to the most relevant ideas in a message rather than the marginal or superficial" (p. 26).

Most often, producers manipulate instructional and educational video to make certain portions of the message apparent or obvious. Special effects, transitions, sound, and music are used to direct viewers to the most critical aspects of an instructional program. Arwady and Gayeski (1989) say techniques like cutting, fading, dissolving, and wiping are used by producers to control the length of the shot, as well as a way to direct viewers to focus on the program's message... (p. 59-60). Attention-gaining devices undoubtedly influence perception because they direct viewers to portions of the instructional message the producer feels are important.

Organizers are promoted as ways to make instructional messages meaningful to learners. Gagné (1977) recommends using advance and comparative organizers preceding information to be learned, to orient learners to subject matter, and to relate the matter to pre-existing knowledge they may already have (p. 198). Fleming and Levie (1978) say, "the more familiar the message is to its audience, the more readily it is perceived. The designer can minimize perceptual demands and facilitate learning [of the message] by using familiar examples, digital or iconic, and by referring back to previous learning" (p. 56).

Producers use repetition, advanced organizers, and visual cohesion to establish patterns, stimulate recall, and clarify message intent. Arwady and Gayeski (1989) say repetition techniques are used to indoctrinate the viewer and emphasize important aspects of the message (pp. 82-87). Other researchers such as Chu and Schramm (1967) and Hoban and Van Ormer (1950) have attested the value of introductions, reviews, advanced organizers, and repetition of important sequences as ways to influence perception and control learning (discussed in Wetzel, 1994, p. 139). These organizational devices structure the video in a way the producer feels it can best be understood.

Video programs have been found to be very effective in many educational settings. Instructional video is still in demand by corporate, educational, and military establishments to teach and train individuals (children, teenagers, and adults) on basic motor, computer, and even professional skills. Educational video is used to influence perceptions, control attitudes, and achieve broad, cultural understanding. Their designs advance the goals of the producer; they do not challenge viewers to make meaning from the video's message. We must look for new models, driven by different intentions and designs, that can be used in constructivist learning activities with students.

Video must be designed differently for constructivist environments, but questions do remain; is video capable of accomplishing this? What would it look like? How would we use such a video in a constructivist learning activity?

Is video capable of accomplishing this?
Indeed, video has great potential in constructivist learning environments. Critics may argue video is a linear, one-way viewing medium that prevents active communication or participation by the learner. But, contrary to this belief, viewing has been described as cognitively active, and viewers will attend to things furthering their comprehension and interests (Anderson & Field, 1983, p. 57). In fact, Solomon and Clark (1986) concluded viewers actively monitor television presentations, and instructional program techniques should be oriented to advance a viewer's own purpose, not to control viewers' attention through formal production features (cited in Wetzel, et al., p. 135). Interestingly enough, constructivist philosophy claims "reality is more in the mind of the knower, [and the] knower constructs a reality, or at least interprets it, based upon his or her apperceptions" (Jonassen, 1991, p. 10). Video can promote constructive thinking if it is challenging, free from control features, and open to interpretation.

What would it look like?
A video model advancing these considerations can be found in Soviet avant-garde cinema in the 1920's, specifically a truly revolutionary film entitled The Man With the Movie Camera (1929). The film, by virtue of its format, is non-conventional. Its strengths, specifically its use of figurative devices like similes and metaphors, challenge viewers to make ideological comparisons. Its flexible design can be interpreted many ways. Thus, I believe this film, and others like it, could stimulate constructive thinking in the classroom. Let's quickly examine the creative purpose and design of the film.

PURPOSE: The Man With the Movie Camera was a revolutionary film borne from the Soviet avant-garde movement in the 1920's, a controversial era in Russian art and literature heavily influenced by constructivist philosophy. New forms of art emerged during this period that challenged Soviet society. Artistic design was lead by ambiguity and open interpretation. Cinema was affected, especially be Dziga Vertov, a filmmaker who "envisioned the development of an unconventional cinematic mode that could be universally understood....a new form of cinema that would engage the moviegoer's 'dormant' consciousness and foster an active mental participation both during and after the screening" (Petric´, 1987). This vision inspired Vertov to create The Man With the Movie Camera. Vertov promoted active, mental participation during and after screening by using design techniques that challenged viewers' perceptions.

DESIGN: The film's unconventional design challenges viewers to make meaning of its message. There are no cueing devices to offer assistance with portions of the message, no attention-gaining devices pointing viewers to obvious information, or organizers to clarify the film's intentions.

Optical surprises created incongruity and complexity for the viewer. Incongruity can be both motivating and confusing, it is believed viewers confronted with such discrepancies will be motivated to resolve them (see Lesser, 1972, pp. 138-139). Jonassen (1991) believes efficient and easy learning environments short-circuit mental processing. Honebein et al. (1993) say it is important to provide realistic levels of complexity in the learning environment; if done correctly, it can actually can make learning easier (p. 95). In the film, unexpected, visual freezes are used to create surprises; hurdling athletes are frozen in midair, and horses frozen in mid-trot. Other examples are evident in a scene where a weight lifter is mocked; as he lifts weights his arms sever and decompose (Petric´, p. 83). These surprises and incongruity force viewers to 'fill in the gaps' to make meaning of the film's message.

The film also challenges viewers to make ideological connections. Vertov used associative editing, disruptive montages, and parallel editing to provoke viewers to think on multiple levels. For example, associative editing was used to link unrelated events or sequences, similar to how similes are used in literature (Petric´, 1987, p. 83). In the film, there is a shot of a young woman in a bathtub followed immediately by a shot of a sprinkler hosing down the street. Another sequence shows a young woman drying herself with a towel, contrasted with another woman cleaning a window.

Disruptive-associative montages and parallel editing were used to make metaphorical comparisons (Petric´, pp. 84-103). A shot of a woman covering herself in mud is contrasted with a shot of a woman in a fancy bathing suit and pearl necklace, applying heavy lipstick in an effort to be more attractive. A shot of a revolving door is associated with traffic and city commotion, creating a metaphor for the repetitiveness and limitation of life's cycles and circles. The juxtaposition of a telephone and traffic signal are contrasted with a marriage scene, advancing each as a metaphor for the other in the process of life's journey. Vertov challenged viewers to decipher the meaning of each comparison; it gave viewers an opportunity to construct knowledge based on their prior experiences, perceptions, and understanding of the subject matter.

Viewers were challenged to construct a theme for the film. Petric´ (1987) says the theme sought to be construed through the relationship of the "photographic execution and montage structure" of the film, not through the more traditional format of a story-line or composition. (see intro.) Noel Burch (1979) says viewers "are challenged to make thematic meaning of the message, and take on an active role as decipherers of its images" (in Petric´, p. 78). Consequently, the film is meant to be viewed repeatedly with the help of an analyst, someone who understands the historic, economic, and environmental issues referred to throughout. In a sense, each scene is a 'piece' of a puzzle; it is up to the viewer to construct the 'puzzle' or theme according to how he or she perceives the 'pieces.'

The 'open-ended' design of the Man With the Movie Camera stimulates constructive thinking because it challenges viewers to interpret the film based on their individual perceptions. Five people can watch the film simultaneously and walk away with five different experiences. It is exactly what we should look for in a constructivist video model.

How would we use such a video in a constructivist learning activity?
The film would most likely be shown in a history or social studies classroom studying Soviet culture in the 1920's. Social studies teachers could take advantage of the complexity, the non-conventional design, and the open-ended thematic structure to lead discussions and offer scaffolding or coaching with high-level students during and after viewing experiences.

Benefits lie in having learners analyze and interpret the allusions, symbolism, and metaphors used throughout the film. Also, we could ask students why they felt the film was designed this way, what elements they felt were confusing, and how they would redesign the film so it would be more logical and clear. Viewers could discuss how prior knowledge affected their viewing, if they understood the film's intentions, and what imagery caused confusion due to ambiguous meaning. Discussions could lead into where one would look to find additional information on the topic, and what information could be added to clarify the overall communicative intent of the film.

Hence, there are many ways we could use such a film to foster independent and creative thinking with our students. Students who watch and participate in constructive discussions during and after viewing episodes may be more apt to use similar creative and analytical thinking strategies in other challenging environments. Additionally, the film should be reviewed, not just as a constructivist learning activity, but also as a model to guide production of new videos designed exclusively for constructivist learning environments.

Summary

Constructivism is changing the instructional focus of classrooms today. Instruction should be challenging, less objective, and goal-free. Instructional and educational video and television programs are useful in the classroom, but are not intended or designed for constructivist learning environments. These forms teach well-defined objectives, advance the purposes of the educational course, producer, or teacher, and are rarely challenging. Thus, we need to look for new video models that have the potential to stimulate constructive thinking with high-level students.

The Man With the Movie Camera is an unconventional, constructivist video model teachers could used in constructivist learning environments. The film challenges viewers to make meaning from its message, and is 'open-ended' enough to be interpreted many ways. Teachers could show this video in their classrooms and offer constructive discussions, not only around the historical context of the film, but also around the design and structure of the film. This film can also be used as a guide to produce other videos exclusively for constructivist environments.

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